Mathematics and Time

Calculation of Labour Utilization: No. of total employees = 22 No. of assistant supervisors = 4 Time used by assistant supervisors for production process = 100% -10% = 90% Therefore, the total available labour = 18 + 0. 9*4 = 21. 6 Maximum labour hours/ month = No. of days*labour hrs available/day*total available labour = 20*8*21. 6 = 3456 hrs Actual labour hours used = 1531. 7 hrs Capacity Utilization = Actual labour hours used/ Maximum labour hours available = (1531. 7/3456) * 100 = 44. 32% This figure does not include the time taken by labour to rework on the parts rejected or returned by the customer.Hence, the actual labour utilization would be more than the above calculated figure. However, we believe that the above time signifies the actual time spent by labour in producing or working on new parts. 2) Profile operation (Fabrication) – Break even analysis: Let the optimal order size be N boards a) Using Punch Press: Total Operating Time = Setup time + Cycle Time*N = 50 + 1*N = 50 + N b) Using CNC router: Operating Time = Setup time + Cycle time*N = 150 + 0. 5*N= 150 + 0. 5N We would use the CNC router when its operating time is less than that of the punch press. i. e. 150 + 0. *N ? 50 + N => 0. 5*N ? 100 => N ? 200 => N ? 200 boards Thus, for orders above 200 boards, the CNC router should be used as it will take less time and hence, would produce more number of boards.3) Drilling Operation (Image Tranfer) – Break Even Analysis Let the optimal order size be N boards a) Using Manual drill: Total Operation Time = Setup time + Run time = 15 + 0. 08*500*N = 15 + 40N b) Using CNC drill: Total Operation Time = Setup time + Run time = 240 + 0. 004*500*N = 240 + 2*N We would use the CNC drill when its operating time is less than that of the punch press. . e. 240 + 2*N ? 15 + 40*N => 38*N ? 225 => N ? 5. 92 => N ? 6 boards Therefore, for orders with size above 6 boards or more, CNC drill should be used as it will take less processing time and hence would increase the capacity. In addition to this we can also calculate capacity utilization using the available run time. As shown in Table 1, the bottle neck is the drilling operation. Thus the maximum number of boards that can be produced is limited by the capacity of drilling( which is 6359) inclusive of CNC as well as manual drilling.

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim stands among the seminal classical theorists of sociology such as Karl Marx, Max Webber and Ferdinand Tonnies (Morrison, 2006). At a time where the subject of sociology itself was in its stages of infancy in universities, Durkheim’s contribution is described as the foundation for what we recognize today as social sciences (Morrison, 2006).Though he never considered himself a ‘sociologist’, Durkheim’s theoretical perspectives and social concerns were profound and comprehensive, straddling aspects of   religion, education, economics, law, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology. Among his central attention were regarding the aspects of Gemenshaft and Geselshaft: how societies were able to function and be efficient as they progressed into modernization when shared religion, culture and ethnic background seemed to deteriorate in tandem as they develop (Giddens, 1971).Durkheim borrowed August Comte’s social analysis where he deconstr ucted society into several parts and described each piece as playing a significant role in keeping the community alive and healthy, much like how each limb and organ throughout our bodies co-exist with one another. For one component to deteriorate or malfunction, the whole system would be affected. He then compounded the Gemenshaft theory with â€Å"social facts† as he moved towards Geselshaft, a term he coined to describe how each component had â€Å"an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that composed society† (Giddens, 1971).His predecessors like Tonnies hypothesized that we all have a purpose to and for each other that motivates us to co-exists, like a barter system, with the exception that humans are the commodities. For Durkheim, the â€Å"collective consciousness† that underlies a traditional society changes to â€Å"individual consciousness† in a modern society as a result of division of labor. Henc e, the simplicity, complacency and structured moderation that gelled people together peacefully slowly dissipates as it becomes complex with different specialization in employment and social roles (Poggi, 2000).Needless to say, Durkheim broke the mold of looking at Comte’s society as a simple family where there was no conflict, confusion and â€Å"anomalies† among its members. It is through these anomalies, or social problems, that we create forms of deviant behavior, most notably, suicide (Poggi, 2000). In a nutshell, the more progressive or â€Å"organic† we become, the more social problems are created called anomalies. And these anomalies are the diseases that corrupt who we are that can eventually tip us over the edge with suicide.Since young, Durkheim was notably a hard-working, studious and scholarly individual.   He was born on April 15 1858 in Lorraine, France into a family of devout Jews. His father and forefathers were all rabbis, yet since young, Du rkheim knew he was not to follow suit (Poggi, 2000). He took an alternative path into the secular movement holding on to a belief that even the role of religious phenomena in society had its roots in social understanding rather than a higher, ethereal Being or Divine intervention (Poggi, 2000). His religious deviation could be due to the insurgence of Marxist politics that were sweeping Europe as repercussions of the French Revolution and Prussian War (Poggi, 2000). Nonetheless, the backbone of all his work was influenced by his family’s religious upbringing though they may not be distinct.At college, Durkheim grew a reputation for being obnoxious. Though he won many accolades upon entering École Normale Supà ©rieure in 1879 his lecturers did not think much of him unlike his peers: Henri Bergson, Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges and Jean Jaurà ¨s, the latter who later became Durkheim’s closest friend (Giddens, 1971).Politics at the time made Durkheim a staunch soci alist. Tensions of the Franco-Prussian war, the siege of Paris and a new republican government overturned many changes intellectually for scholars throughout Europe, including Durkheim (Morrison, 2006). In America, tensions were also arising from the civil war between the Union and the eleven southern states led by President Lincoln (Morrison, 2006). It is interesting to point out that as Durkheim germinated a keen observation for social studies and social deviant behavior, America was experiencing the booming explosion of migration from all over Europe (Mclaughlin, 1990) due to the political instability.Despite America’s own civil conflicts, North America was becoming the goal destination for transatlantic migration. With its rapid influx of racial and cultural assimilation from Africa, South Americas through to Ireland, Durkheim’s work were soon to be seminal and timely in analyzing the social discrepancies that were to befall the new melting pot America (Mclaughlin, 1990). Soon, the country, under the leadership of President William McKinley at the turn of 1890, was experiencing the very problems Durkheim and his peers were scientifically trying to prove in rapidly developing organic societies. America was undergoing what sociologists describe as â€Å"transplanted networks† – foreign cultures taken out of its roots and transplanted amongst each other in a new climate allowing the plurality to blend into a concoction of some sort (Mclaughlin, 1990).For most Americans, immigration had caused an acute problem: the loss of the true â€Å"American† identity. America was not just having problems with cultural diversity, but also color diversity. Racial inequality was also due to color division. Though the civil wars had removed the term slavery from its context, the stigma, prejudice and discrimination among the African American and the whites continued to persist, causing an over-layering of marginality on top of the European migration (Mclaughlin, 1990). This racial division soon led to insufficiency and inequality in opportunities leading to so many social anomalies (Mclaughlin, 1990). Considering the fact that Durkheim never set foot in America, it is ironic that America was to become the perfect guinea pig of a society for his all future analyses.As more Europeans fled to America, Durkheim grew increasingly nationalistic for a weakened France but left for Germany for a year. His return brought new inspiration. He helped to revolutionize the secular education by introducing social science as a teacher in pedagogy and reforming the French school system (Giddens, 1971). A slew of famous accomplishments came after: in 1893 he wrote The Division of Labor in Society, in 1895 he finished Rules of the Sociological Method and founded the first European Department of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux, in 1896 founded the journal L'Annà ©e Sociologique, and in 1897 published Suicide (Morrison, 2006).For a man of his astounding contribution, scholastic achievement and nationalistic pride, Durkheim succumbed to a bullet much closer to his heart: the death of his son in World War I. He never recovered from his sadness and two years later in November 15 1917, Durkheim, emotionally overwhelmed and devastated, died from exhaustion.Though he died at a young age of fifty-nine, Durkheim left a legacy of social understanding that speaks in volume up till today. One of his remarkable works is his book entitled Le Suicide (1897) that argues how collective forces are instrumental determinants for suicide than individual factors. Though the book was greatly challenged by scholars and skeptics alike, Durkheim’s investigations warrant a legitimate space for understanding, if not comparative study (Brym and Lie, 2006).Though suicide is commonly associated with psychiatric illness, human weaknesses as an escape to life’s difficulties, or mental dysfunction due to substance abuses, Durk heim contends that it is society and its trappings that leads an individual over the edge (Edles and Appelrouth, 2004). What has been recorded such as race, heredity, psychiatric factors, etc are all â€Å"peripheral factors†, far from the nucleus of the causes. The nucleus is by not looking at suicide as an individual or isolated case, but by looking at the totality of suicide in a society: what are the factors causing people to commit suicide? Why are people committing suicide?Based on Le Suicide, one strong basis is caused by an individual’s poor integration into his society (Emirbayer, 2003). By not being able to fit in, one becomes a social outcast – an anomaly – and being left out or misplaced is what leads one to want to be completely out of the whole community, hence suicide. Another cause is when there is no moral or social integration or regulation for the individual within his society (Edles and Appelrouth, 2004). His formulation: each society has an aptitude for suicide. This is measured by taking the proportion between the total number of voluntary deaths and the population of every age and sex against its historical period (Emirbayer, 2003).Durkheim creates a linking between individual pathologies to social conditions (Edles and Appelrouth, 2004). He describes four types of suicides: egoistic, altruistic, anomic and fatalistic (Emirbayer, 2003). Egoistic suicide occurs when man finds no more purpose in life. An example is when a person lives alone or has loosened his bonds with his family, is divorced and feels disconnected with others. His sense of non-belonging and feeling non-appreciated would be the triggers that end his life (Edles and Appelrouth, 2004). It is considered the most extreme form and a natural disposition for individuals living in highly developed and modern societies.Altruistic suicide is when an individual gives his life for his group. Examples of this would be the practice of human sacrifices in ce rtain remote tribal cultures and suicide bombers.   Durkheim describes another type of suicide that stems from this extreme form of helplessness – fatalistic suicide. Such suicide results in primitive groups or societies where the individual is rendered powerless in releasing himself from a form of oppression such as slavery or sacrificial cult.Anomic suicide happens when there is lack of moral regulation to the individual and his social group. This occurs when the individual feels morally lost and adrift, setting him apart from everyone else. He may have deviated himself from not wanting to be a part of any religion because there many to choose from, or because the religious plurality has reduced his insight on the true meaning of religion (Brym and Lie, 2006).Through Durkheim’s teachings, we learn that if all members of a society were anchored to common sets of symbolic representations, to common assumptions about the world around them, individuals in their social groups would feel a sense of belonging and help prevent societies from social decay and degeneration.References1.Applerouth, S. A. and Edlers, L. D. (2004). Sociological Theory in the Classical Era: Text and Readings. Thousand Oaks. Pine Forge Press2.Brym, R. J. and Lie, J. (2006). Sociology Your Campus for a New World. Australia. Thomson Wadsworth3.Emirbayer, M. (2003). Emile Durkheim Sociologist of Modernity. MA. Blackwell Publishing Ltd4.Giddens, A. 91971). Capitalism and Modern Social Theory. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press5.   Poggi, G. (2000). The Founders of Modern Political and Social Thought. Oxford. Oxford University Press6.Morrison, K. (2006). Marx, Durkheim, Weber. London. Sage Publications Inc.7.   V. Yans-Mclaughlin. (1990). Immigration Reconsidered History, Sociology and Politics. Oxford. Oxford University Press

An Analysis of A People’s History of the United States by Howard Zinn Essay

A People’s History of the United States is a 1980 non-fiction book by American historian and political scientist Howard Zinn. In the book, Zinn seeks to present American history through the eyes of the common people rather than political and economic elites. A People’s History has been assigned as reading in many high schools and colleges across the United States.[1] It has also resulted in a change in the focus of historical work, which now includes stories that previously were ignored.[2] The book was a runner-up in 1980 for the National Book Award. It has been frequently revised, with the most recent edition covering events through 2005. In 2003, Zinn was awarded the Prix des Amis du Monde Diplomatique for the French version of this book, Une histoire populaire des États-Unis.[3]More than two million copies have been sold. Reviews have been mixed. Some have called it a brilliant tool for advancing the cause of social equality. Others have called the book a revisionist patchwork containing errors. In a 1998 interview, Zinn said he had set â€Å"quiet revolution† as his goal for writing A People’s History. â€Å"Not a revolution in the classical sense of a seizure of power, but rather from people beginning to take power from within the institutions. In the workplace, the workers would take power to control the conditions of their lives.†[4] In 2004, Zinn edited a primary source companion volume with Anthony Arnove, entitled, Voices of a People’s History of the United States. Columbus to the Robber Barons â€Å"Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress† covers early Native American civilization in North America and the Bahamas, the genocide and enslavement committed by the crew of Christopher Columbus, and incidents of violent colonization by early settlers. Topics include the Arawaks, Bartolomà © de las Casas, the Aztecs, Hernà ¡n Cortà ©s,Pizarro, Powhatan, the Pequot, the Narragansett, Metacom, King Philip’s War, and the Iroquois. Chapter 2, â€Å"Drawing the Color Line† addresses the early enslavement of Africans and servitude of poor British people in the Thirteen Colonies. Zinn writes of the methods by which he says racism was artificially created in order to enforce the economic system. He argues that racism is not natural because there are recorded instances of camaraderie and cooperation between black slaves and white servants in escaping from and in opposing their subjugation.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Persons of Mean and Vile Condition† describes Baconâ€℠¢s Rebellion, the economic conditions of the poor in the colonies, and opposition to their poverty.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Tyranny is Tyranny† covers the movement for â€Å"leveling† (economic equality) in the colonies and the causes of the American Revolution. Zinn argues that the Founding Fathers agitated for war to distract the people from their own economic problems and stop popular movements, a strategy that he claims the country’s leaders would continue to use in the future.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"A Kind of Revolution† covers the war and resistance to participating in war, the effects on the Native American people, and the continued inequalities in the new United States. When the land of veterans of the Revolutionary War was seized for non-payment of taxes, it led to instances of resistance to the government, as in the case of Shays’ Rebellion. Zinn wrote that â€Å"governments – including the government of the United States – are not neutral†¦ they represent the dominant economic interests, and†¦ their constitutions are intended to serve the se interests.† â€Å"The Intimately Oppressed† describes resistance to inequalities in the lives of women in the early years of the U.S. Zinn tells the stories of women who resisted the status quo, including Polly Baker, Anne Hutchinson, Mary Dyer, Amelia Bloomer, Catharine Beecher, Emma Willard, Harriot Hunt, Elizabeth Blackwell, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Margaret Fuller, Sarah Grimkà ©, Angelina Grimkà ©, Dorothea Dix, Frances Wright, Lucretia Mott, and Sojourner Truth. If you look through high school textbooks and elementary school textbooks in American history, you will find Andrew Jackson the frontiersman, soldier, democrat, man of the people — not Jackson the slaveholder, land speculator, executioner of dissident soldiers, exterminator of Indians. Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States â€Å"As Long As Grass Grows or Water Runs† discusses 19th century conflicts between the U.S. government and Native Americans (such as the Seminole Wars) and Indian removal, especially during the administrations of Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. Chapter 8, â€Å"We Take Nothing By Conquest, Thank God† describes the Mexican-American War. Zinn writes that President James Polk agitated for war for the purpose of imperialism. Zinn argues that the war was unpopular, but that newspapers of that era  misrepresented the popular sentiment.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Slavery Without Submission, Emancipation Without Freedom† addresses slave rebellions, theabolition movement, the Civil War, and the effect of these events on African-Americans. Zinn writes that the large-scale violence of the war was used to end slavery instead of the small-scale violence of the rebellions because the latter may have expanded beyond anti-slavery, resulting in a movement against the capitalist system. He writes that the war could limit the freedom granted to African-Americans by allowing the government control over how that freedom was gained.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Other Civil War†, covers the Anti-Rent movement, the Dorr Rebellion, the Flour Riot of 1837, the Molly Maguires, the rise of labor unions, the Lowell girlsmovement, and other class struggles centered around the various depressions of the 19th century. He describes the abuse of government power by corporations and the efforts by workers to resist those abuses. Here is an excerpt on the subject of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877:[10][11] Chapter 11, â€Å"Robber Barons and Rebels† covers the rise of industrial corporations such as the railroads and banks and their transformation into the nation’s dominant institutions, with corruption resulting in both industry and government. Also covered are the popular movements and individuals that opposed corruption, such as the Knights of Labor, Edward Bellamy, the So cialist Labor Party, the Haymarket martyrs, the Homestead strikers, Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, Eugene V. Debs, the American Railway Union, theFarmers’ Alliance, and the Populist Party. The Twentieth Century â€Å"The Empire and the People†, covers American imperialism during the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War, as well as in other lands such asHawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico. The Teller Amendment. Zinn portrays the wars as being racist and imperialist and opposed by large segments of the American people. Chapter 13, â€Å"The Socialist Challenge†, covers the rise of socialism and anarchism as popular political ideologies in the United States. Covered in the chapter are the American Federation of Labor (which Zinn argues provided too exclusive of a union for non-white, female, and unskilled workers; Zinn argues in Chapter 24 that this changes in the 1990s),Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), Mary Harris â€Å"Mother†Ã‚  Jones, Joe Hill, the Socialist Labor Party, W. E. B. Du Bois, and the Progressive Party (which Zinn portrays as driven by fear of radicalism). â€Å"War is the Health of the State† covers World War I and the anti-war movement that happened during it, which was met with the heavily enforced Espionage Act of 1917. Zinn argues that the United States entered the war in order to expand its foreign markets and economic influence. â€Å"Self-Help in Hard Times† covers the government’s campaign to destroy the IWW, and the factors leading to the Great Depression. Zinn states that, despite popular belief, the 1920s were not a time of prosperity, and the problems of the Depression were simply the chronic problems of the poor extended to the rest of the society. Also covered is the Communist Party’s attempts to help the poor during the Depression. â€Å"A People’s War?†, covers World War II, opposition to it, and the effects of the war on the people. Zinn, a veteran of the war himself, notes that â€Å"it was the most popular war the US ever fought,† but states that this support may have been manufactured through the institutions of American society. He cites various instances of opposition to fighting (in some cases greater than those during World War I) as proof. Zinn also argues against the US’ true intention was not fighting against systematic racism such as theJim Crow laws (leading to opposition to the war from African-Americans). Another argument made by Zinn is that the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not necessary, as the U.S. government had already known that the Japanese were considering surrender beforehand. Other subjects from WWII covered include Japanese American internment and the bombing of Dresden. The chapter continues into the Cold War. Here, Zinn writes that the U.S. government used the Cold War to increase control over the American people (for instance, eliminating such radical elements as the Communist Party) and at the same time create a state of permanent war, which allowed for the creation of the modern military-industrial complex. Zinn believes this was possible because both conservatives and liberals willingly worked together in the name of anti-Communism. Also covered is the US’ involvement in the Greek Civil War, the Korean War, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, and the Marshall Plan. Chapter 17, â€Å"‘Or Does It Explode?'† (named after a line from Langston Hughes’s poem â€Å"Harlem† from â€Å"Montage of a Dream Deferred†, referred to as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Lenox Avenue Mural† by Zinn), covers the Civil Rights movement. Zinn argues that the government began making reforms against discrimination (although without making fundamental changes) for the sake of changing its international image, but often did not enforce the laws that it passed. Zinn also argues that while nonviolent tactics may have been required for Southern civil rights activists, militant actions (such as those proposed by Malcolm X) were needed to solve the problems of black ghettos. Also covered is the invol vement of the Communist Party in the movement, the Congress of Racial Equality, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Freedom Riders, COINTELPRO, and the Black Panther Party. â€Å"The Impossible Victory: Vietnam†, covers the Vietnam War and resistance to it. Zinn argues that America was fighting a war that it could not win, as the Vietnamese people were in favor of the government of Ho Chi Minh and opposed the regime of Ngo Dinh Diem, thus allowing them to keep morale high. Meanwhile, the American military’s morale for the war was very low, as many soldiers were put off by the atrocities that they were made to take part in, such as the My Lai massacre. Zinn also tries to dispel the popular belief that opposition to the war was mainly amongst college students and middle-class intellectuals, using statistics from the era to show higher opposition from the working class. Zinn argues that the troops themselves also opposed the war, citing desertions and refusals to go to war, as well as movements such as Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Also covered is the US invasions of Laos and Cambodia, Agent Orange, the Pentagon Papers, Ron Kovic, and raids on draft boards. Chapter 19, â€Å"Surprises†, covers other movements that happened during the 1960s, such as second-wave feminism, the prison reform/prison abolition movement, the Native American rights movement, and the counterculture. People and events from the feminist movement covered include Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell, Patricia Robinson, the National Domestic Workers Union, National Organization for Women, Roe v. Wade, Susan Brownmiller’s Against Our Will, and Our Bodies, Ourselves. People and events from the prison movement covered include George Jackson, the Attica Prison riots, and Jerry Sousa. People and events from the Native American rights movement covered include the National Indian Youth Council, Sid Mills, Akwesasne Notes, Indians of All Tribes, the First  Convocati on of American Indian Scholars, Frank James, the American Indian Movement, and the Wounded Knee incident. People and events from the counterculture covered include Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan,Joan Baez, Malvina Reynolds, Jessica Mitford’s The American Way of Death, Jonathan Kozol, George Dennison, and Ivan Illich. Chapter 20, â€Å"The Seventies: Under Control?†, covers American disillusion with the government during the 1970s and political corruption that was exposed during the decade. Zinn argues that the resignation of Richard Nixon and the exposure of crimes committed by the CIA and FBI during the decade were done by the government in order to regain support for the government from the American people without making fundamental changes to the system; according to Zinn, Gerald Ford’s presidency continued the same basic policies of the Nixon administration. Other topics covered include protests against the Honeywell Corporation, Angela Davis, Committee to Re-elect the President, the Watergate scandal,International Telephone and Telegraph’s involvement in the 1973 Chilean coup d’à ©tat, the Mayagà ¼ez incident, Project MKULTRA, the Church Committee, the Pike Committee, theTrilateral Commission’s The Governability of Democracies, and the People’s Bi-Centennial. â€Å"Carter-Reagan-Bush: The Bipartisan Consensus†, covers the Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, and George H. W. Bush administrations and their effects on both the American people and foreign countries. Zinn argues that the Democratic and Republican parties keep the government essentially the same (that is, they handled the government in a way that was favorable for corporations rather than for the people) and continued to have a militant foreign policy no matter which party was in power. Zinn uses similarities between the three administrations’ methods as proof of this. Other topics covered include the Fairness Doctrine, the Indonesian invasion of East Timor, Noam Chomsky, global warming, Roy Benavidez, the Trident submarine, the Star Wars program, the Sandinista National Liberation Front, the Iran-Contra Affair, the War Powers Act, U.S. invasion of Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War, the Invasion of Grenada, Óscar Romero, the El Mozote massacre, the 1986 Bombing o f Libya, the collapse of the Soviet Union, theUnited States invasion of Panama, and the Gulf War. â€Å"The Unreported Resistance†, covers several movements that happened during the Carter-Reagan-Bush years that were ignored by much of the mainstream media. Topics covered include the anti-nuclear movement, the Plowshares Movement, the Council for a Nuclear Weapons Freeze, the Physicians for Social Responsibility, George Kistiakowsky, The Fate of the Earth, Marian Wright Edelman, the Citizens’ Clearinghouse for Hazardous Wastes, the Three Mile Island accident, the Winooski 44, Abbie Hoffman,Amy Carter, the Piedmont Peace Project, Anne Braden, Cà ©sar Chà ¡vez, the United Farm Workers, the Farm Labor Organizing Committee, Teatro Campesino, LGBT social movements, the Stonewall riots, Food Not Bombs, the anti-war movement during the Gulf War, David Barsamian, opposition to Columbus Day, Indigenous Thought, Rethinking Schools, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. â€Å"The Coming Revolt of the Guards†, covers Zinn’s theory on a possible future radical movement against the inequality in America. Zinn argues that there will eventually be a movement made up not only of previous groups that were involved in radical change (such as labor organizers, black radicals, Native Americans, feminists), but also members of the middle class who are starting to become discontented with the state of the nation. Zinn expects this movement to use â€Å"demonstrations, marches, civil disobedience; strikes and boycotts and general strikes; direct action to redistribute wealth, to reconstruct institutions, to revamp relationships.†[13] Chapter 24, â€Å"The Clinton Presidency†, covers the effects of the Bill Clinton administration on the U.S. and the world. Zinn argues that, despite Clinton’s claims that he would bring changes to the country, his presidency kept many things the same as in Reagan-Bush era. Topics covered include Jocelyn Elders, the Waco Siege, the Oklahoma City bombing, the Crime Bill of 1996, the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, the 1993 bombing of Iraq, Operation Gothic Serpent, the Rwandan Genocide, the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the 1998 bombing of Afghanistan and Sudan, the Impeachment of Bill Clinton, Barbara Ehrenreich’s Nickel and Dimed, Stand for Children, Jesse Jackson, the Million Man March, Mumia Abu-Jamal, John Sweeney, the Service Employees International Union, the Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees, the Worker Rights Consortium, the Poor People’s Economic Human Rights Campaign, the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights,  the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Spare Change News, theNorth American Street Newspaper Association, the National Coalition for the Homeless, anti-globalization, and WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The 2000 Election and the ‘War On Terrorism'†, covers the 2000 presidential election and the War on Terrorism. Zinn argues that attacks on the U.S. by Arabterrorists (such as the September 11, 2001 attacks) are not caused by a hatred for our freedom (as claimed by President George W. Bush), but by grievances with U.S. foreign policies such as â€Å"stationing of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia†¦ sanctions against Iraq which†¦ had resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of children; the continued U.S. support of Israel’s occupation of Palestinian land.† Other topics covered include Ralph Nader, the War in Afghanistan, (though notably absent is any mention of the Talibangovernment in control in Afghanistan at the time, the war being launched, according to Zinn, based merely on the belief that bin Laden was hiding in the country) and the USA PATRIOT Act

Company Review Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Company Review - Research Paper Example A brief analysis of the history of Apple Inc would suggest that the firm has gone through significant challenges due to the competitive nature of the industry. Since Apple produced hardware which can run its own operating system therefore it restricted its marketability. It was mostly because of this reason that Microsoft was successful in gaining almost whole market share when it rolled out its own operating system which can run on any hardware platform. However, Apple made a turn around and expanded itself into different other markets thus gaining widespread success. Its real success came with the introduction of Apple Ipod- an MP3 music player which can play songs and videos besides being handy in storing and viewing pictures. Apple Iphone – the smartphone from Apple is one of the leading smartphones in the world and is even overtaking Nokia- a long time market leader in mobile phones besides giving tough challenge to other firms. It has also recently launched tablet comput er with the name of Apple IPAD which has also proved one of the most innovative and successful products in the industry. This paper will discuss the history of Apple, its products, mission and vision statements besides discussing some of the trends in the industry. History of Apple Apple Inc is one of the leading multinational organizations in the world engaged in the business of consumer electronics, personal computers as well as software. Established in 1976, Apple was started by three individuals however, later on it was managed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Apple Inc was incorporated as Apple Computers and rolled out its first model of computers during 1976. The earliest device manufactured by Apple Computers therefore was a handmade motherboard with a built-in CPU and other accessories considered as basic requirements to perform functions as a computer. (Linzmayer, 1999) The early phase of the firm i.e. its first few decades were dominated by the manufacturing of the compute rs and Apple did not involved itself into the manufacturing of other consumer electronics items. With the change in the personal computer industry and the introduction of DOS and Windows operating systems by Microsoft, Apple started to lose its charm and lost market to Microsoft in operating systems business. Since Microsoft’s operating system could be run on any personal computer therefore it was easy for the firms like IBM to manufacture PCs which could be run through Windows operating system. A closer look at the history of Apple would suggest that it has rolled out different models of its earlier version of Apple 1 and continued to produce new models. During 1977, Apple Computers was able to roll out its second version i.e. Apple 2 overcoming many of the previous technical weaknesses of the first model. During 1980s, due to increasing competition mainly from IBM, Apple rolled out third model of its computer and improving on the previous models by further improving differe nt technical aspects of its earlier computer models. (Coventry, 2006) Apple’s real success came with the introduction of its Apple Mac model during 1984 with extensive marketing efforts by Apple to make it a commercial success. It is also important to note that it was during 1980s that Steve Jobs was forced to leave the company due to its internal power struggle. However, Jobs rejoined the firm as CEO during 1997 and thus Apple’s real stride towards success begun. (MARKOFF, 1997)

Linguistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Linguistics - Essay Example Hence, the â€Å"written† language enjoys the superiority of being official and acceptable everywhere. The difference between jargon, accents, slang and dialect is also important. Dialects keep changing since language is made and modified by the times people live in, which of course are incessantly in a flux. Some legitimacy is also enjoyed by different dialects depending on who speaks it, mainly subscribing to the various strata of society. Usually the choices of the elite determine the stratification of dialects and languages; via which many other stratification can also be explained for example fashion etc. 2. Non-standard dialects and its usage is quite political if you come to think of it. The chapters elaborates about how standard versus non-standard is largely a matter of what is in vogue at that particular point in history. For example, the r-lessness that suffers changing connotations on either side of the Atlantic is simply a matter of fashion. At the same time it is not so simple because it has serious implications for the members who speak in it as the way of talking is a very important judgment factor, voluntarily and involuntarily. This kind of stratification of language relegates communities to the periphery by defining ‘popular’ dialect etc. ... The politicians and well-educated might also talk in the same vernacular dialect to portray a sense of belonging to their local community. 3. Linguistic variability is important because it represents the variety of cultures and styles. They are of many levels and types. The various levels are lexical (vocabulary and meaning), phonological (pronunciation), morphosyntactic (syntax and usage of words), and pragmatic (way of talking, pausing, and pacing). The various types are those of social class and social networks, gender, and ethnicity. Social status has varied influences on language, with no easy one on one relation. In some places, (Arabic speaking nations), the level education defines status and not the profession (unlike America, where occupation is the general parameter). Also, the high or correct Classical Arabic is not spoken in daily use. In America, and other western countries however, standard language is preferred over nonstandard by people who are of upper class, so to s ay. Loose social ties (usually in lower class groups) tend to be more open to language change as compared to people belonging to dense social ties who maintain vernacular speech features and are less likely to language change (Milroy and Milroy). Like Labov suggested, that the lower class are also more open to language change because they are the ones who are most upwardly mobile of all class groups. 4. Language variation and gender researches show markedly concrete inferences. In case of stable language features, women tend to use standard language more than men. For example, swimming instead of swimmin’. Interestingly, women are more subject to language change than men in many western countries. In another example, Labov observed

Business organization (law) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Business organization (law) - Essay Example This is the very reason why the reformation of the law on limited partnership in the United Kingdom has earned many controversial comments that has brought together a chance for each particular element and parties involved in the process a hard way of completing the said task successfully. In the paper that follows, the completion of the reformation of the laws on Limited Partnership shall be examined in relation to its pros and cons and how much this particular matter affects the relationships and organizations established within the area of scope of the said law. Among the issues to be tackled herein includes the utilization of the Laws on Limited Partnership as the basis of the establishment of different organizations and agreements on the field of business and other associated connections that links people and/or groups of people sharing a particular vision towards a certain goal. It has been observed that the original released law on the said matter in the year 1890 had been rather accustomed to the past systems of application as per suggested to the guideline pursued by the said set of rules. This is practically the reason why the administration of UK realizes the need to reform the old system to be able to meet the needs of parties forming agreeable partnerships in the present system of organizations. These issues would rather be clarified in the paragraphs that follow through. The Basic Understanding of the Laws on Limited Partnership The laws on limited partnership have been released as an approved law in the UK in 1907 and 1908. It was basically presented to allow the connection of people between each other to form organizations and groups that are based on certain focus that allows the chance for every individual or any particular entity to form agreement with others become a possibility. These agreements are rather formed to establish understanding between the parties involved in the situation being considered. The understanding between the parties is the basic foundation of the creation of group that is well focused on a central goal that is noted as the main motivational force behind the existence of the said agreement form1. Through the years though, the demands of people from the systems of partnerships that they get involved with change. Understandably, the developments in the situation suggest the need for the adjustment of the primary sets of control of the operations of several partnerships in the society. How are these practical operations created and observed carefully to give better protection to the values of the parties involved The following elements of lawful recognition of the different aspects making up the major creations of rules and regulations formed as laws to protect the basic values of the parties involved in the agreement have been practically used as basis of the adjustments that needed to be assessed in connection with the creation of new

Thermoregulation in Desert Lizards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Thermoregulation in Desert Lizards - Essay Example Among ectotherms, lizards inhabiting tropical regions are most likely to be affected since biodiversity in their habitats are most affected (Meek 1). Change in temperatures affects lizards in terms of thermoregulation mechanisms, energy expenditure, as well as biological activity. Investigation on how temperature changes, caused by global warming, are affecting lizards is of utmost importance especially considering that lizards are at a high risk of extinction. According to Huey et al, â€Å"Forest lizards are key components of tropical ecosystems, but appear vulnerable to the cascading physiological and ecological effects of climate warming, even though rates of tropical warming may be relatively low† (Huey et al 1939-1940). This paper explores the effect of global warming on thermoregulation mechanisms of lizards. Strategies to Thermoregulation of Desert Lizard According to theories of evolution, thermoregulatory mechanisms in many species especially reptiles has evolved wit h time in response to changing climatic conditions (Huey et al 1939-1942). Changes in climatic conditions cause increase in temperature variations forcing lizards to adopt both biological and behavioral temperature regulation mechanisms in order to cope with changing weather conditions. According to Meek, â€Å"The evolution of thermoregulatory behavior in reptiles almost certainly arose because environments are not usually thermally stable but fluctuate both on a daily or seasonal basis or because of uneven heat distributions within environments† (Meek 1). Meek hypothesized that any thermoregulation mechanism adopted by lizards comes at costs and benefits. For instance, lguanid lizard inhabiting high altitudes where temperatures are extremely low use ground vegetation for insulation. It was observed that the lizards could raise their body temperature to approximately 35degrees by basking on the sun for two hours. They could then return to their shelters and maintain their bo dy temperature for the whole afternoon. However, such a thermoregulatory mechanism comes at a cost since the lizards remain inactive, minimal habitat utilization, and increased basking (Meek 1). These findings correlate with findings by Kearney et al â€Å"Warmer environments also may increase maintenance energy costs while simultaneously constraining activity time, putting pressure on mass, and energy budgets† (Kearney et al 1). One of behavioral mechanisms adopted by lizard is change of body color in relation to surrounding environment temperatures. According to Bradshaw, this type of behavior enables the desert lizard to maintain its body temperature in a normal range. As the temperature goes down the lizard turns into black. Black color is a good absorber of heat and hence it is able to absorb heat faster from the environment. Once the environmental temperature rises, light color becomes prominent. This turns the heat away and enables the lizard to cool its body. This exp lains why desert lizards are light in color as compared to lizards in cold regions (Bradshaw 90). Besides being a thermoregulatory mechanism, a study by Bujes and Verrastro found out that color change was also found to be a camouflage mechanism (Bujes and Verrastro 1). Activity of the Lizard in Different Seasons The most important factor in behavioral regulation of temperature in desert lizards is use of burrows. Indeed, different studies have pointed to the same fact that desert lizards spend almost 75% of their lifetime in burrows throughout annual season. These burrows offer temporary rescue or long-term survival mechanism. Lizards either dig their own burrows or use already existing ones (Bradshaw 166). Similar findings were found by â€Å"The activity of

The shortage of nurses in the NHS Scholarship Essay

The shortage of nurses in the NHS - Scholarship Essay Example 6. Work Climate, which includes: a. Dissatisfaction with pay b. Increase in workload c. Lack of empowerment d. EU Legislation e. Poor working conditions 7. Poor Perception of Nursing as a profession The dissertation also discusses solution to this problem like better workforce planning, recruitment effort, focus on international recruitment and improvement of nursing as a profession. 1. Introduction As pointed by O'Brien-Pallas et al (2001) state that "the cycles of shortages and surpluses, which have been a source of frustration for nurses in practice, planners, researchers, administrators and funders, are intimately linked with the quality of nurses' work life, the health of nurses and the quality of care they are able to provide. The quality of work life can affect not only the system's ability to recruit and retain nurses, but also overall system costs related to the productive use of available nursing resources". And therefore a need to study this phenomenon of shortage of nurses, its causes and possible solutions is important. It is widely acknowledged that NHS has been facing a growing shortage of nurses. While some parts are experiencing shortage at a higher rate than others (London for example), it has been accepted that there is a national shortage. It is believed that UK may be a on a downhill road on the issue of lack of nursing staff and that it is no more a problem of organizations alone, but that of the leaders and law makers of the country. It is said that NHS is unable to deliver good quality healthcare due to the pressure it faces on account of lack of nursing expertise. Need for nurses is depicted as cyclical in nature. Mullen (2003) points out that that the Department of Health recognizes this... It is widely acknowledged that NHS has been facing a growing shortage of nurses. While some parts are experiencing shortage at a higher rate than others (London for example), it has been accepted that there is a national shortage. It is believed that UK may be a on a downhill road on the issue of lack of nursing staff and that it is no more a problem of organizations alone, but that of the leaders and law makers of the country. It is said that NHS is unable to deliver good quality healthcare due to the pressure it faces on account of lack of nursing expertise. Need for nurses is depicted as cyclical in nature. Mullen (2003) points out that that the Department of Health recognizes this problem and NHS has revisited its targets to increase the nursing workforce in all clinical professions in 2000. Mullen (2003) points out that "a report published by the Audit Commission (2002) drew attention to the seriousness of the workforce shortage, stating that '' the biggest constraint the NHS f aces today is no longer a shortage of financial resources. It is shortage of human resources" (p.346). The previous three decades have seen a fluctuation in the nursing workforce strength in UK. There was a dearth of nurses till the 80's and then a sharp rise from 80's through the 90's.

BUSINESS ASSIGNMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUSINESS ASSIGNMENT - Essay Example The segmentation has been done by using demographics and behavioural strategies. The target market has been chosen after identifying the size and profitability of the segments. After developing the positioning strategy, the marketing mix has been created for the target market. Finally, an overview of the financial plan of Manga Cafe has been discussed. IDENTIFIED PROBLEM The business plan of launching Manga Cafe in London appears to be a unique idea as there is currently not such cafe in London however, because of the aggressive competition among the international brands in the UK Cafe industry; Manga Cafe needs a very well-organised and efficient marketing plan. INDUSTRY COMPETITION Various coffee brands are operating in London; however, the three largest market leaders include Starbucks, Costa Coffee and Nero. The following positioning map shows the positioning of major cafe providers in London based on their quality of services and prices. Starbucks being the market leader is offe ring average quality but at very high prices, therefore, shares of Starbucks are declining not only in UK but in most of its major markets (Bishopric, 2011). Costa is expanding throughout UK because of its reasonable prices and better quality and in 2010/2011, company aims to open 130 more outlets in the UK (Bakeryinfo, 2010). Nero is considered as a cheap brand which offers value through high quality products and services. Positioning Map THE PRODUCT/SERVICE DESCRIPTION Manga Cafes are very popular among the Japanese communities. The increasing number of Japanese residents in the UK builds a strong demand for Manga Cafes in the UK, European and foreign markets. Since there is no Manga Cafe in London yet, therefore, launch of Manga Cafe in London appears to be a feasible business option. This cafe will fulfil the increasing demand of Japanese comics in Europe. The cafe will offer a platform to the people where they can come and enjoy reading Japanese comics. Moreover, additional ser vices will also be offered to entertain the visitors such as Japanese food, internet facility, games and DVDs. The visitors will be charged based on their duration of stay in the cafe. MARKETING PLAN Market Segmentation To segment the market, demographics and behavioral segmentation strategies have been used. In demographics segmentation, the consumers have been segmented based on their age, profession and nationality. Age: The age group structure of London in 2001 is given below (Office for National Statistics, 2002). Age Structure of People in London Source: Office for National Statistics Profession: The second demographic variable is profession and in London people belonging to different professions such as education, workers, professionals, unemployed reside. Nationality: The third demographic variable is nationality and since Manga Cafe is a Japanese cafe therefore, only Japanese nationals will be directly targeted. However, the total population of London in 2009 was 7,686,000 and it includes around people with 34 different nationalities (London.gov.uk, 2010). Table: London Population by Nationality Source: London.gov.uk In behavioral segmentation, the consumers who will be having knowledge, interest and positive attitude towards Japanese culture will be

How Leaders can overcome conflct, influence others and raise Essay

How Leaders can overcome conflct, influence others and raise performance - Essay Example However, with this new insight, I can be well armed to face the boss on an equal footing. I have learnt how not to be held an emotional hostage in my relationships, whether personal or business. Being a leader, I might also have to resort to taking my team members â€Å"metaphorical hostages† to achieve the desired results. As a leader, my ultimate goal would be to increase productivity and enhance performance. Thus, I would try to use all the available skills to achieve this, including engaging in productive dialogue and resolution of tough problems. Through this write-up, I have learnt valuable tips on how to be an effective leader and overcome conflict by skillful negotiations. I would even try to influence others and raise the performance of my team. If we can understand the intricacies of our relationships, beliefs and values that shape our thinking, recognize and respect the intrinsic dignity of the individual, we can be sure to act in an appropriate manner and be free from a situation in which we could be held as a metaphorical hostage. Thus, I can confidently say that I will not be held a hostage, emotionally or physically in any given situation: personal or business. I will be in a position to effectively deal with difficult situations :both at work and in my personal life. The essence would be to be calm and composed in any situation and look for solutions, rather than give into the demands made by

Is social media really serving the purpose of making people more Essay - 1

Is social media really serving the purpose of making people more sociable or is it creating an introverted generation - Essay Example Despite these benefits of social networking, it has also resulted in undesirable effects such as widespread feeling of loneliness, loss of identity, and social alienation from the society. Thus, it is increasingly creating reserved individuals who are so much inclined to their thoughts and feelings with minimal societal interactions. The anonymity and lack of face-to-face interaction associated with most social sites such as Facebook and Twitter provide an opportunity for dissimulation of feelings and personal traits during communication. People feel freer to express their thoughts, which are not sincere on many occasions, on social media than in real life situations because nobody sees them. This kind of anonymity is a crucial factor that triggers human feeling of freedom from social responsibility, which often leads to negative consequences (Zimbardo 255). Furthermore, social media allows people to create false personalities and identify themselves with individuals different from who they are. As a result, they start detaching themselves from the rest of the community and later, this may cause certain communicational disability, social anxiety, and even asceticism (Zimbardo 225). There is a likelihood that exposure of these individuals who have masked their personalities through social media communication woul d be a social catastrophe. For example, the case of Facebook privacy breaches that has become a nightmare for its users. In addition, the fear of losing social media privacy has led to the appearance of cyberbullying, which is a huge problem nowadays. Social media bullies play on people’s dependency on social media images, so they often manipulate people by creating breaches in their social networking profiles’ security. It is also imperative to note that the cyberbullying contributes to the development of introspective tendencies of modern social media generation. Researchers in this area revealed that cyberbullying

Securitization Pros Essay Example for Free

Securitization Pros Essay The introduction of financial sector reforms in India has led to innovations in financial markets and instruments. One of the most prominent developments in the international finance in recent times that is likely to assume even greater importance in future is ‘securitisation’. Securitisation is the process of pooling and re-packaging of homogenous illiquid loans into marketable securities. Increased pressure on operating efficiency, on market niches, on competitive advantages, and on capital strength, all provide fuel for rapid changes. Securitisation is one of the solutions to these challenges. 2. Reserve Bank of India, as a facilitator, has attempted to explore the intricacies of securitisation as a process of financial engineering and its applicability to the Indian financial system especially in the mortgage and infrastructure sectors. The in-house Working Group constituted by the Bank had the benefit of presentations of and interaction with market intermediaries, regulators, industry experts and international agencies on various aspects associated with securitisation. 3. The report defines asset securitisation and makes a reference to future flow securitisation. Motivation and benefits in the form of capital relief, improvement in return on equity and return on assets, use as a strategic tool, asset liability management, improved liquidity, upgradation in system, Originator discipline, etc. have been highlighted. 4. Various impediments viz. , lack of investors’ base, capital market infrastructure, regulatory framework, legal provisions, accounting and taxation issues besides good quality assets, past data and standardisation of documents have been identified. In the process of exploring opportunities in India, the ideal conditions for success of securitisation in USA and other countries are highlighted. 5. Experience of securitisation in a few developed countries (USA, Japan, Australia, etc. ) and emerging markets like Thailand, Argentina and Morocco has been discussed in detail. The report also identifies securitisation of impaired assets. 6. The disclosure norms and rating will provide touchstones. The Offer Document should give rating rationale which should seek to comment on the quality of the receivables, payment structures, adequacy of the credit enhancement, risks and concerns for investors and the mitigating factors, etc. Rating agencies have already acquired a fair degree of expertise in India through rating of structured obligations and other issues that are quite similar to securitisation. 7. True sale characteristics of securitisation transactions are required to be reflected in the books of accounts, statements to be furnished to the concerned regulators as also to the tax authorities. Since there are no guidelines for accounting treatment of these transactions, the accounting procedures with appropriate guidelines need to be framed by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India for the sake of uniformity. A background paper has been prepared in this regard and attached to this report which may serve as a guide in the interregnum. The background paper includes a few illustrations for the guidance of the financial entities. 8. The role of various regulators (RBI, SEBI, etc. ) and other agencies / entities has also been discussed. 9. The recommendations have been categorised into short-term, medium-term and longterm with definite timeframe in each category. The major recommendations on legal issues (short-term) are incorporated in Chapter 9. These include: i) Defining securitisation in the Transfer of Property Act to lend uniformity of approach and restrict the benefits provided by law/regulation for genuine securitisation transactions. ii) Rationalisation of stamp duty to make it uniform at 0. 1 per cent for all securitisation transactions. Attempts may be made to bring the subject under the purview of Indian Stamps Act 1889 from the State Stamp Acts. ii) Reduction of registration charges by amending Section 17(2) of the Registration Act. iv) Inclusion of securitised instruments in Securities Contract Regulation Act. v) SEBI may consider removal of prohibition on investment in mortgage backed securities by Mutual Fund Schemes. vi) Tax neutrality of Special Purpose Vehicle. Recommendations for tax reforms also in clude the spread of upfront income received by Originator over the tenure of the loan securitised, extension of benefits under Section 88 of Income Tax Act for repayment of housing loans after the loans have been securitised etc. 10. Other recommendations are summarised below: i) The most significant impact of securitisation arises from the placement of different risks and rights of an asset with the most efficient owner. The training institutes of the financial institutions should attempt to spread awareness of the benefits and scope of securitisation increasingly among financial community. ii) Spell out the risk weights and NPA norms on securitised paper. Insurance Companies and Provident Funds need to be encouraged to invest in the securitised paper. Besides, suitable regulatory framework may have to be evolved to encourage Foreign Institutional Investors. ii) Listing requirements for various securities to be issued may be stipulated which may include minimum issue size, eligible stock exchanges etc. iv) Include the securitised paper in demat trading. v) While identifying the key characteristics of special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) to keep the structure â€Å"remote† from the bankruptcy of the Originator, t he Group recommends flexibility in the structure of SPV. SEBI may formulate detailed guidelines in this regard. vi) Accounting treatment should enable the ‘off balance sheet’ effect for securitised assets. Such treatment for future flow securitisation, credit enhancer etc. has been clarified. A Research Committee of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India is already working on minute details of accounting treatment. vii) Adequate disclosure norms are recommended for an ‘informed† decision by the investor. A model Offer document has been attempted by the Group to give information on description of assets, historical performance, end use of funds, transaction structure, and statement of risk factors. The Group also recommends continuous disclosures. iii) The report has suggested prudential guidelines for banks, developmental financial institutions, non-banking finance companies, etc. including broad creteria for true sale. Model prudential guidelines have been prepared which incorporate issues such as off balance sheet treatment, credit enhancement, servicing, etc. ix) Medium term measures include increased flow of information thorough credit bureaus, standardisation of documents, improvement in the quality of assets, upgradation of computer skills and exploration of the possibilities of securitising non-performing assets.

Ryanair British Airways | Fare comparison

Ryanair British Airways | Fare comparison Introduction This document reports the findings of a review of the economics and business literature on empirically-estimated own-price elasticity of demand for air travel for Ryan air and British Airways. It refers to the data on page two of the assignment handout to both above airlines to illustrate and explain the concepts of price elasticity of demand and income elasticity of demand. The purpose of this study is to report on all or most of the economics and business literature dealing with empirically approximate demand functions for air travel and to collect a range of fare elasticity measures for air travel provide in the data on the second page of the assignment topic and provide some judgment as to which elasticity values would be more representative of the true values to be found in different airline such as Ryan air and British airways, furthermore will evaluate the achievement of cost savings of Ryan air through fixed costs and variable costs as well as writing a critical analysis the article on BAA Airports: ‘Notice of release of interim undertaking 1. Price Elasticity of Demand and Income elasticity of demand in the context of air travel demand: (Ryan air British Airways) This paragraph identifies two distinct prices for air travel which are price elasticity of demand and income elasticity of demand. Specifically, it is observed that studies of the demand for air travel demand should distinguish among prices for: Low cost carrier (LCC) example of Ryanair and Full Service Carrier (FSCs) example of British Airways in this case study; business and leisure travel; long-haul and short-haul travel; and international and European long-haul travel. Accordingly, to examine the sensitivity of the demand for air travel to its price, separate estimates of the price elasticity of demand are gathered for each of these two distinct markets. Price Elasticity of Demand ‘Price Elasticity of Demand is a numerical value which describes the degree of responsiveness of demand to changes in prices. (Andrew, D. 1988: 260) The demand for a particular good or service depends on a variety of factors. Key influences include, the levels of consumer income, the price and quality of the services in question and especially services that are close substitutes (Sloman, 2005). In order to obtain useful estimates of the price sensitivity of demand for a product, we must carefully control for all the factors affecting the demand. As a general rule, once other influences on demand stay unchanged, a higher price for a product leads in a lower quantity demanded. However, the price responsiveness of demand varies from one good to another and from one market to another (FitzRoy et al, 1998). Since the availability of alternative modes of transportation that are reasonably close substitutes for air transport diminishes with distance travelled, it is expected that the demand for air transport will be less elastic for longer flights typical example of British airways with is a FSCs than for shorter flights typical example of Ryan air. Determine the demand and for the premium value the demand is low. means that for the different strategies the demand is price strategy, in al produEach price will lead to a different level of demand and therefore have a different impact on a companys marketing objectives. The higher the prices are the lower the demand of the goods (Kotler 2002). British Airways has two types of customers:  · Price sensitive customers (students, independent travelers, frequently travelers) who are looking for the cheapest prices and the best offers, and  · Low sensitive customers (business and executive customers) who are concerned more in the quality than the price. Considering the three different pricing strategies of British Airways the demand curve will be as shown in the figure below. The price demand considers being elastic which means that for the different pricing strategies the demand is noticeable changing. For the low cost price the demand is high and for the premium value the demand is low. 2.3.3 Cost estimation British Airways estimating the cost of the products in relation with the quality its one provide. The cost of the ticket includes:  · The price of the service  · The added value (extras)  · The airport fees, and  · The travel agents extra fees However if someone book a ticket from the internet has at www.britishairways.com has a discount of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤10. 2.3.4 Pricing method Considering the three different types of customer, the three segments, British Airways has set a pricing method of perceived value. Perceived value is the value promised by companys value proposition and the customer must perceive this value. British Airways perceived value is made up by the companys brand mane and image, the customers image, the performance of the company and the quality of the product created by the company. 2.4 Promotional pricing British Airways has set some promotional prices on flights to some special occasion:  · Christmas gift voucher. The promotional offer for the Christmas known as British Airways escape ticket offers a perfect present. Flying to 14 travel zones from à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤59 return on UK and Europe destinations and from à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤269 return on the rest of the world.  · Domestic and European fares from à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¤49 return: Low fares to 135 destinations across Europe.  · Club World business class offer: When flying to club world business class you can upgrade to first class on a free one way ticket. 2.5 Relation within the sector The competition has increased since the introduction of the low cost airlines as easy jet and Raynair. Those airlines have achieved to sell chip tickets by eliminating all the unnecessary costs. They eliminated the intermediaries, the on board value and basically they eliminated completely the augmented product. They have concentrated just on the basic product which is the flight ticket from the on destination to the other. They using a low cost low quality pricing strategy and set a market penetration objective in order to gain more market share. The have a method of value pricing of selling their tickets, the basic, in a greater value than their competitors. Other companies with same objectives as British Airways like Lufthansa and Virgin have followed the same pricing strategies and policy. They set different price rates in relation with value added and looking after how to gain a bigger piece of the market pie. 3. Conclusion Considering the increased competition in the flying industry which is rising people expect that companies will reduce cost by providing less quality products. That is partly true considering what easy jet and Raynair has succeeded. However this is only one part of the true. Companies like British Airways fight the competition with different methods like introduction of low cost ticket where customer can still enjoy a good quality product in a low affordable price. Just considering an example where Ryanair (a low cost airline) flights to Milan from  £49.99 return and British Airways from  £628 return. The problem though with Ryanair is that you can find this cheap ticket if you book it about it well in advance. But if you try to book it on the same day before your journey the price has gone up at  £179.99 return when British Airways price will be still remaining the same until a week before your journey. So does it really worth flying with the low cost airlines which offer just a ticket with no allocated seat, no food or drinks and from unfrequented airports when you have a company like British Airways with so much extra for almost the same price? Thats a question that each of as has to answer on his own. Further, international travel tends to be widen over more time than domestic travel, so that the airfare is a smaller proportion of overall trip costs, which makes international travel less sensitive to changes in ticket prices. In addition, leisure travellers are more likely to postpone trips to specific locations in response to higher fares, or to shop around for those locations offering more affordable fares. Consequently, it is expected that the demand for air transport for leisure reasons will be more elastic than business travel who usually travel with FSCs. Acco rding to Anthony et al (2000) Ryan air prices management is systematically offering different prices to different customer segments in response to demand whereas (Kimes, 1989) suggests that the team in charge of yield management need to identify how changes in price will affect their customers. Within the airline industries customer demand may be higher on week ends, during Summer months, or at particular times of a day, (Belobaba, 1987). Managers must be able to forecast time-related demand so that they can make effective pricing and allocation decision to manage the shoulder periods around high demand period. However the corporate business traveller during the week becomes a leisure traveller when on holiday or at week-ends. Different occasion find the same consumer having different expectation and needs, (Buttle, 1986). Such a concept is termed elasticity of demand. According to the Data downloaded from Ryan air website giving on page two of the assignment topic the price of the flight on the day it been downloaded is far more higher than the price of the flight on other following days of the week day. However, when approaching the end of the week-end or school holiday, there is a huge demand and the increased demand drives the price up again as customer are returning from their vacation or family are going on holiday. Closer to the date and time of the scheduled service, the price rises, on the simple justification that consumers demand for a flight becomes more inelastic the nearer to the time of the service. The low cost airlines such as Ryan air follow the pricing strategy outlined above. Customers booking early with carriers such as Ryan air will normally come across lower prices if they are ready to commit themselves to a flight by booking early. This gives the airline the plus of important how full their flights are likely to be and a sou rce of cash-flow in the weeks and months prior to the service being provided. People who book late often regard travel to their planned destination as a need and they are therefore likely to be prepared and able to pay a much higher price very close to departure. Airlines call this price discrimination yield management but despite the consider name, at the heart of this pricing strategy is the straightforward but important concept price elasticity of demand. Ryanair has a seat pricing policy that causes fares to rise as a flight fills up (Ryanair.com, 2010). Following theory of supply and demand, if customer wants a seat so badly, they will pay more for it than otherwise. Income Elasticity of Demand It is defined as numerical values which describe the responsiveness of demand to a change in consumer incomes. (Sloman, 2005) Because of the recession, demand for low cost flights grew rapidly as family with higher income who were travelling with FSCs before would prefer low cost than traditional airlines and some current low cost customer with low income may prefer domestic flight or would just prefer not to travel by air. However, since elasticity is measuring proportionate change, elasticity values will change along almost all demand functions, including linear demand curves. Estimation of elasticity values is therefore most useful for predicting demand responses in the vicinity of the observed price changes. As a related issue, we recognize that in markets where price discrimination is possible comprehensive data will not allow for accurate predictions of demand responses in the relevant market segments. In air travel, FSCs are essentially joint products consisting of differentiated service bundles that are identified by fare classes. However the yield management systems employed by FSCs also create a complex form of inter-temporal price discrimination, in which some fares (typically economy class) decline and some increase (typically full-fare business class) as the departure date draws closer. This implies that ideally, empirical studies of air travel demand should separate business and leisure t ravellers or at least be able to include some information on booking times in order to account for this price discrimination, and that price data should be calibrated for inter-temporal price discrimination: for example, the use of full-fare economy class ticket prices as data will overestimate the absolute value of the price elasticity coefficient. Within the set of differentiated service bundles that comprise each (joint product) flight, the relative prices are important in explaining the relative ease of substitution between service classes. Given the nature of inter-temporal price discrimination for flights, the relative price could also change significantly in the time period prior to a departure time. In particular changes in real income and the prices of substitutes or complements will affect demand. Alternative transportation modes (road and rail) are important variables for short-haul flights, while income effects should be measured for both short and long-haul. Oum et al. (1992) provide valuable tools that occur when evaluating the demand models. Air travel demand can be affected by changes in the prices and service quality of other modes. For short-haul routes (markets) the relative price and service attributes of auto and train would need to be included in any model; particularly for short-haul markets such as low cost airline. Failure to include the price and service attributes of substitutes will bias the elasticity. For example, if airfares increase and auto costs are also increasing, the airfare elasticity would be overestimated if auto costs were excluded. The entry of low cost carriers leads to lower fares for a subset of traffic and competitors will offer a supply of seats to match these fares. Lower average fares should lead to lower demand elasticity estimates, while increases in the number of competitors in the market will lead to higher demand elasticity estimates. 2. How ‘low cost carriers such as Ryan air able to achieve cost savings? Fixed Costs and Variable Costs. Ryan airs business model is focus around its general low cost philosophy. That is Ryan air attempts to cut all non value adding activities as it strives to drive costs down to the total minimum. Below are typical examples how it drives its downwards which include selling directly to its customer over the internet or over the phone rather than via agents and middlemen, thus saving commission cost and administrative cost. Ryan air is a ticketless as most of it customer buy over the internet, in return for a booking reference that is exchanged at the checking counter at the airport for a boarding pass. The airline has no in flight meals which is a cost saving measure that cannot be much inconvenience to its customer since all Ryan air flights are short haul. Nevertheless has subcontracted catering services on its flights where customer can buy an in flight meal and drink should they wish which is another way of driving price. Cabin crew double up as cleaner and this helps Ryan air to promise a turnaround time at any airport of 30 min rather than 45-60 min that has FSCs been the norm. Another cost cutting device, is the typical example of the UK smaller airports such as London Luton, cheaper to fly to from than bigger airports such as Heathrow which it is use at least as its base as they are less congestion and facilitate turnaround times for aircraft to be a lot shorter. Fixed Costs Fixed Costs are defined as the Total costs that do not vary with the amount of output produced (John, S. 2005:82) Ryan air as a LCC operate in the environment of high fixed cost, fixed capacity in the short term, a perishable product and seasonal demand. Virtually all of airlines costs can be considered fixed. The cost of the capital tied up in the plane, the fuel it take to fly the route, the crew it will take to staff the ground and flight operations insurance, rent, etc†¦ All these cost are fixed once the company decides to fly a particular route and the variable costs associated with serving another passenger on the flight are figure lively peanuts. Ryan air generates sufficient revenue through ancillary services such as car rentals, accommodation, currency, travel insurance, transactions, refreshments, to cover variable costs and offset at least some fixed cost. Management believes that providing these services through the internet allows Ryan air to increase sales, while at the same time reducing costs on a per unit basis. Variable Costs Variable Costs are defined as the total costs that do vary with the amount of output produced (Sloman, 2005: 82) The relatively low variable costs associated with many capacity- constrained Ryan air allow for some pricing flexibility and give operators the options of reducing pricing during low demand times. Ryan air always seeks for low variable costs. Below are factors that help Ryanair to maintain a low variable cost: * One type of aircraft, management believes that its strategy of limiting its fleet primarily to three variants of a single type of aircraft from a single manufacturer enables it to limit the costs associated with personnel training, maintenance and the purchase and storage of spare parts, as well as affording greater flexibility in the scheduling of crews and equipment. * Pricing is based strictly upon revenue maximization process that matches the aims and objectives of prices elasticity of demand * Internet booking which cut paper and administrative costs * No airport sales offices/ no cancellations * Charging a surplus for excessive baggage * Maximization of seat capacity per plane Use of less expensive airport as ‘Ryan air been offered incentives is a controversial one Ryan air director of communications. Ryan air further endeavours to reduce its airport charges by opting, when practicable, for less expensive gate locations as well as outdoor boarding stairs rather than more expensive jet ways. Ryan air has entered into in agreements on competitive terms with third party contractors at certain airports for traveller and aircraft handling, ticketing and other services that management believes can be more cost resourcefully provided by third parties. Management attempts to obtain competitive rates for such services by negotiating multi-year contracts at prices that are fixed or subject only to periodic increases related to inflation. One of the typical example is the price of aviation fuel which is directly related to the cost of oil but Ryan air control this through hedging. All these factors listed above contributed to a low variable cost of Ryan air, a key component in any successful yield management system and provide an opportunity for leverage against its major competitors. 3. Critical analysis of the issues involved in the following article: ‘BAA Airports: Notice of release of interim undertaking Bibliography

Design And Develop Supermarket Sales System Services Computer Science Essay

Design And Develop Supermarket Sales System Services Computer Science Essay It contains details for the customers, suppliers and products. This system contains two types of users, administrator and the end user. The administrator has the authorization to create new users, edit an existing user and delete a user or disable a user. This system generates multi reports for costumer, supplier, product, and soling. This will cut down the amount you spend away from the primary focus of your business and getting more control over your business. CHAPTER ONE Introduction SMSSS is solving a problem that could face any business. An inventory that could disappears from your stores, pharmacies, restaurants and hospitals, due to theft, wastage and employee misuse; because employee will know that inventory is being carefully tracked. SMSSS can instantly tell you about how many a particular product have sold today, or in any period you want. My Graduation Project is applied on supermarket; this will help on tracking its remaining inventory, spot sales trends, use historical data to better forecast your needs and detailed sales reports make it much easier for it; to keep the right on hand. SMSSS will include two types of users, administered user and a normal user. The first will have the authorization to add users to check the reports and observing the suppliers. The normal user just will prepare the customers orders and print out the billing. Every SMSSS system needs a printer to create credit card slips for customer but the users will deal with this system without using that printer therefore the paying will be in separate operation with normal printer. Touch screens are more intuitive to use than keyboards for many users, but in this case there will not be a touch screens, the users will depend on the keyboard and a computer only. It is a simple system without providing the flexibility to users. Background As it is mention before in the introduction this project will apply on supermarket, which has number of employees who received the customers orders. This supermarket is new, so it is looking for suitable manner to run on their business. This work is usually want a faster user who understand the customers order in short time, and save the money by count the orders price without mistake, especially when your business is run will and lot of customers orders you should focus on to not effected on your business, that why the SMSSS system will helps to save money, provide productivity gains. Objective Our project helps to record any and all sales, it automate overall inventory control, helping to keep stocks in proper balance depend on demand and other factors, so management is much easier. Also you are able to track promotions more successfully, whether through capons and special discount. In SMSSS you get many tools in a single package. SMSSS can make better use of your personal by little is more maddening to a business owner than watching his/her staff bogged down. SMSSS reduce paperwork, increase productivity, reduce time you have to spend doing inventory, provide more precise information on the rate at which each product in your inventory moves so you know when and how much of each item to order, showing you what selling and what not, which vendor product are profitable, and which vendors are making you the most money overall. In this case, your customer gets faster and more accurate service. CHAPTER TWO (Project Deliverables) Project Deliverables The deliverables for this project is consisting into four main sections: Research Analysis and Design Implementation and Testing Testing and Evaluation Project management 2.1 Research In this section, it will gather information about HCI, and similar software to the one that will be built and the language that decide to use. 2.2 Analysis and Design Analysis is the process of breaking a case or topic into many smaller parts to increase a better understanding of it. This way will helps to find the functionality of the software should have, and what programming language should used to implement it, and solve problems found during the research section, and discuss what methodology will use for both designing and implementing the system. Design method consists of the modeling language and the design process. Modeling language is a convention detailing how the design will be written on the paper. Unified Language is an example of a modeling language (UML). It makes details on how the software will be developed. 2.3 Implementation and Testing The design section will contain screen designs as well as the core design of the software and the way it is implemented and it will include the testing and evaluation. 2.4 Testing and Evaluation Testing is establishing a software system to find out the errors. Testing a set of programs against requirements specification expressed in different diagram such as data flow and entity relationship diagrams. In the process of software development, testing has historically been left until the code has been written. [1] Testing code done by different people at different times. The testers are depending on which testing is being done and the resources allocated in order to tasting a particular software product. The testers could be: the programmers, a team of testers, people represent the market for the software, the client and maintainer [1]. During and after implementation the software, code is being tested .Pre-implementation testing is done by a testing team of reviewers project manager or clients or system developers. After implementation or code testing, software developers prefer to taste the system from the bottom up, in order to check if they launch to have coded correctly. The testers applying two main testing techniques: black box testing and white box testing. There are many different of testing such as unit testing, test phases, system testing, integration testing, regression testing , acceptance testing, release testing and beta testing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..[1] 2.5 Project Management Eatch project can run smoothly and efficiently according to some sort of managements. This ways of monitoring the project is important in order to controlling the costs and benefits of any project. If there are occurred reasons that make the work is running late, or make the costs are beginning to escalate, it is necessary and essential to discover this as soon as possible and to be able to recovery these bugs . That cause uncovered a problem then corrective action can be taken to have the possible effects of the problem reduced. The project manager is responsible for organizing planning, monitoring and controlling the project only if the management side has been separated from the technical development. [2] The task of the project management, plan, estimate time and effort, identify tasks for the team, use prior experience, schedule work, use resources, monitor and control the progress of the project, evaluate what is priority , and identify quickly the causes of problems all these are expensive, in terms of both time and money. [2]It is important to project manager to be able to identify areas of risk, such as lack of knowledge, occurred new technologies or problems relating to requirements, and to obviate these all plans should be prepared.[2] most of project managers use such as graphics of charts to scheduling their work there are many different types of char, they mainly fall into one of two categories, bar chart which is often referred to Gantt chart) and network chart which is often referred to (CPM or PERT or CPA) in this project well use the Gantt Chart in order to organize our timing,. Chapter Three Research Similar Product There are a variety of software solutions available for Cashier Assistant (point of sale). Several different approaches are examined here to compare different features and gain an understanding of the best approach to take when designing a Cashier Assistant (POS) in the following pages, good and bad points about surveyed application will be examined on what to add or to improve in the software to be. The layout of this examination is follow: The name of the being application A list of good points about the application A list of bad point about the application 3.1 Harolds Fine Home Lighting is a company based on tradition with 17 independent workstations. 3.1.1 Good Points Fast Eliminate the need for separate point of sale terminal. Provide quick verification and processing of credit cards at the POS. Simple bar coding and efficient, create a reliable way to control inventory. 3.1.2 Bad Points Huge data, there is no automatically back up. Difficult to update 3.2 Rod Works 5 stores depends on sale items 3.2.1 Good Points Automatically generate purchase orders when items fall below recorder levels Reduce inventory carrying costs by tracking inventory turns and gaining Generate discrepancy reports to resolve errors in physical inventory 3.2.2 Bad Point Huge data, there is no automatically back up. Difficult to update Research into HCI Human computer interaction is created by computer software and hardware. Human computer interaction makes computer and human interface more interesting and satisfies users needs. Human computer interaction design methodologies are based on User Centered Design. They are focus group, affordable analysis, participatory design, rapid prototyping, user scenario, value-sensitive design, and contextual design, etc. In Human computer interaction design seven principles are considered, tolerance, simplicity, Visibility, Affordance, Feedback, Structure, Consistency, etc. web interface and normal GUI are used according to the purpose. It is used for conferences, space shuttles, aircrafts, etc[3] The human-computer interface is the point of communication between the user and the computer. There are several goals depend on the end user to gain his interaction. Environment: depend where the user is used his own machine in which environment, college park whatever. Input information: the tasks the required by the user to the computer. Output data: whatever have generated from the computer represented to the user. Feedback: whatever the user required pass to the computer and forward back. HCI is affected by several forces of future computing for example:[5] Reduction hardware price guiding to larger memories and quicker systems. Miniaturization of hardware guiding to portability. Decrease in power needs guiding to portability. New present technologies guiding to the packaging of computational machines in new shapes. Specialized hardware guiding to new roles. Improved progress of network communication and shared out computing. Increasingly extensive use of computers, especially by user who are outside of the computing occupation. Growing novelty in input techniques (e.g., voice, gesture, pen), combined with lowering price, guiding to fast computerization by people who left out of the computer insurgency. Widespread common concerns guiding to get better contact computers by disadvantaged groups Interview Techniques interview Inputs interview Outputs interview Interaction Techniques interview Issues kinds of input principle s (e.g., choice, distinct parameter specification, nonstop control) Input techniques: keyboard, menus, mouse-, pen-based, voice. kinds of output principles, express precise information, abstract information, show processes, create illustration of information) Output techniques like: scrolling present, windows, animation, sprites, fish-eye displays) Screen describe issues (e.g., focus, clutter, visual logic) Dialogue type and techniques for example: form filling, menu selection, icons and direct treatment, generic functions) searching, error management Multimedia and non-graphical dialogues: mic, speaker, voice mail, video mail, active documents, CD-ROM Real-time reaction issues Manual organize theory Supervisory control, automatic systems, embedded systems Standards protection 3.2 Research on Software Tools 3.2.1 Research on Java http://www.csci.csusb.edu/dick/samples/java.html http://101.lv/learn/Java/ch1.htm Java is an object oriented program it is often used in VCRs and toasters it was originally called OAK it is a high level language developed by Sun Microsystems. One a real information is that Java is based on the first version of C++. Java includes a set of class libraries that provide basic data types it is standard Java environment, system input and output capabilities, and other utility functions. Java is Platform that means it is easy to move the program from one computer to other. This is as an advantage of java over other programming languages. To execute a Java program a bytecode interpreter should be run. Bytecode is built into every Java-enabled browser. it is read the bytecodes and executes your Java program it is often called the Java virtual machine or the Java runtime. Java is a language that should compiled into the special machines code to then interpret. The role of the interpreter is to protect the machine from errors that can break down operating systems in C++. Compiled code can run on different systems, so a Java program can be across via a network to a machine with any different operating system you have it and with different GUI. Since java is high-level language it used to write applet and applications. An applet is a small program should send it cross the internet and interpreted on the client machine by a Java-aware browser. Java application can only be compiled and then run on the same machine. That why you cannot run the java if you do not have an application or a WWW page that refers to it. Once you decide to run the java you may have to change the properties of your browser this is a security issue in order to have the trust from your browser in order to use the compiler, that why when you do not recognize the compiler version you w ill face that your applet is rejected. 3.2.2 Visual Basic It is a programming language and environment developed for such type of windows or web application or reports and many purpose belong to development.[10]. since its launch in 1990, the Visual Basic come up to be the custom for programming languages. Now there are visual environments for many programming languages, including both C and C++, plus for Pascal and Java. Sometimes VB called RAD system because it is enable programmers to speedily build proposal applications. VB was one of the first products to supply interface environment for user, plus the VB programmers can insert a substantial quantity of code just by dragging and dropping control, like using buttons, text box, radio buttonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦act and then defining them by using the properties functions. Although not a true OOP language, it is sometimes known as an event-driven language because each object can act in response to several events for example when we use a mouse click. 3.2.3 C# Language C# is an object-oriented language. It is further includes support for component-oriented programming. C# has a unified type system. All C# types, have primitive types(int and double, inherit from a single object type). C# supports user-defined reference types and value types, allowing dynamic allocation of objects and-line storage of lightweight formations. C# programs consist of one or more source files .Concepts in C# are programs, namespaces, types, members, and assemblies. Programs declare types, which contain members and can be organized into namespaces. Classes and interfaces are examples of types. Fields, methods, properties, and events are examples of members. When C# programs are compiled, they are physically packaged into. Assemblies have both executable code in the form of Intermediate Language (IL) orders, and symbolic information in the form of metadata. Before the executed begin, the Intermediate Language code is directly changed to processor-specific code by help of the Just-In-Time compiler of .net Common Language Run time (CLR). Variables types: value types and reference types. value types include their data where variables of reference types store references to their data. With reference types, it is likely to have two variables to reference the same object helping for operations on one variable to affect the object referenced by the other variable. Through value types, the variables have their own copy of the data. It is possible on one to affect the other. 3.3 Research on Database 3.3.1 Research on SQL Server SQL Server Aclient server is made of two components: an application that is used to present the application data, and a database system that is used to store it. The application may used the visual studio 2005 or access or some other graphical user interface. And to store the database it is suitable to use SQL server. Database is a collection of objects stored in the SQL server. This collection of objects including tables, views, stored procedures, functions and other object necessary to build the database. As know the tables are the first generally thing that you add to a SQL server. And each table contains information about specific case. Once the tables are created the user should mentioned the keys for each table. SQL server stored procedures and compiled code and executed on the server. You can execute them through any client(VB.net, microsoft access, microsoft wordà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) If you waant to modify the a stored procedure you can modify it from the server. The change you do impact to all user client thet call the stored procedure. Microsoft recognize that there is a plethora of database user with disparate needs. That why they release the following six version: SQL server 2005 Express edition SQL server 2005 workgroup edition SQL server 2005 developer edition SQL server 2005 standard edition SQL server 2005 enterprise edition SQL server 2005 mobile edition. Features are provided by database engine http://www.informit.com/guides/content.aspx?g=sqlserverseqNum=14 Clustering Services It is operating system allows the user to recover immediately from currently system to another. Replication services remains data in synchronization between SQL Server databases and other database like Oracle, Microsoft Accessect. other using for It is to send data to several systems. XML transfer data between mixed programs or data sources. SQL Server 2008 allow the user to report on SQL Server 2008 adds a new Policy Based Management system to SQL Server, which allows you to report on and put in force a exact pattern for any database object. SQL Server 2008 can track the performance and other data in a central location and raise a report. In SQL server a provider for power shell is including. This helps the user to save scrip programs and for windows, Microsoft exchange, and Microsoft office too. The SQL Server provider deals with SQL Server Instances, Databases and Database Objects . this let the user deal with them in perceptive way. Reporting services has been built in SQL server 2000 and to SQL server 2005 and next other modern versions. The feature helps the user to do their work through SQL server directly via the browser. 3.2.3 Research on Oracle The Oracle Database [12]referred to RDBMS or as Oracle (RDBMS). As of 2009[update], Oracle remains a major presence in database computing. Oracle RDBMS stored data logically in table spaces and in data files if the it is in physicaly form. Oracle DBM tracks the data stored with the help of the information that is stored in the system table space itself. In 1970, oracle was the first commercial relation database based on the relational language SQL. It is goes in such development; oracle tools could support many methodologies. Oracle users would purchase the database, but it was possible to purchase some tools that make up the oracle product rang but not others. Designer 2000 was formally known as oracle CASE, and is helpful on data and process modeling. Developer 2000 is used to build a application, once it has been designed using oracle designer 2000. Discoverer 2000 consists of a suite of user friendly query tools designed for ad-hoc reporting. The oracle database management system is central to these tools, through many ends -user are hardly aware of its presence. The main method of communicating directly with the oracle database is by using the SQL language. Although this stands for SQL. It enables the experienced user to do more than just handle queries. There are extensions to the basic SQL language provided on Oracle and together they from PL/SQL. The SQL optimizer attempts to make each SQL statements as efficient as possible when executed. SQL procedure can be trigger by certain events, for example after updating or deleting a record. The security feature are now very sophisticated; you need system previleges to access the database and object level privileges at different levels to query, insert, delete and updating, any object stored in the database. Data is validated through data constraints, that is, only allowing permitted values of data to be entered into the database Oracle database management tracks its data storage with the help of information stored in the system space table. Oracle RDBMS is supported localy managed table space which help store space management information in their headers better than in the table space. The history of Oracle database. (1979) was the first released Oracle version 2 (1982) released Oracle version 3 (1984) released Oracle version 4 (1986) released Oracle version 5 (1988) released especial version for OS mackintosh Oracle version 1 (1989) released Oracle version 6 (1993) released Oracle version 7 (1997) released Oracle version 8 (1999) released Oracle version 8i (2001) released Oracle version 9i (2003) released Oracle version 10g (2007) released Oracle version 11g 3.4 Research into Methodologies 3.4.1 Research into Traditional System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) The rapid increase in the power[13], speed and capacity of computers, and the demands of clients and the market-place have encouraged software developers to attempt to develop ever more ambitious systems. First attempt was in 1960s and early 1970s but this was a complex and system, it was difficult to maintain and did not do what was required. The system life cycle was an attempt to establish a structured approach to analyzing designing and building software systems. The system life cycle divided the development of system into stages. Feasibility Study: the development team visits the customer and studies their system. They investigate requires in the given system. End of the feasibility study, the team supply a document that holds the different specific recommendations for the candidate system, personnel assignments, costs, project schedule, target dates etc. The purpose of this phase is to find out the need and to define the problem that needs to be solved. Analysis and design: The software development process, the softwares overall structure and its nuances are defined. In terms of the client/server technology, the number of tiers needed for the package architecture, the database design, the data structure design etc are all defined in this phase. A software development model is thus created. Analysis and Design are very crucial in the whole development cycle. Any glitch in the design phase could be very expensive to solve in the later stage of the software development. Much care is taken during this phase. The logical system of the product is developed in this phase. Code Generation: The design must be translated into a machine-readable form. The code generation step performs this task. If the design is performed in a detailed manner, code generation can be accomplished without much complication. Programming tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers etc are used to generate the code. Different high level programming languages like C, C++, Pascal, Java are used for coding. With respect to the type of application, the right programming language is chosen. Testing: The software program testing begins when the code is generated. There are Different testing methodologies are available to solve the bugs. Maintenance: Once the software delivered to the customer, maintenance phase is important for many reasons could change once the system is used by the clients. Bugs could happen because of some unexpected input values into the system and system directly affects the software operations. The software should be developed to accommodate changes that could happen during the post implementation period. 3.4.2 Structured System Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) it is one of the methodologies that launch to analysis and design of IS. It is consist into sequence of stages: Feasibility Stage Analyze the case that you have at a high level, by using Data Flow Diagram to explain how system is work and to think about the problems. These parts are including to this stage: Build up a Business Activity Model(BAM). Study the requirements. study the processing. Study data. Get logical view of present services. Define Requirements Stage Get an idea about the old environment, by know the system requirements and recognized the business environment by modeled them by using a DFD and Logical Data Structure. Requirements Specification Stage This stage is to assist the management, by using BSOs will telling the range and functionalities to provide and present them. They also need financial and risk evaluations to be prepared, and require to be supported by outline implementation reports. These parts are including to first stage: Develop mandatory data model. Receive system functions. Grow user job specifications. Enhance mandatory data model. Develop specification samples. Build up processing specification. Verify system objectives. Logical System Specification Stage Officially this stage is to choice the feasible options. The development/implementation environments are particular based on this choice. Logical System Specification Stage In this stage Both Processes and logical designs should update, as well the dialogs are specified these parts are including to this stage: Classify user dialogue. Define the updating processes. Classify enquiry processes. Physical Design Stage The purpose of this stage is to denote the physical data and process design. The way to define them is to use the language and features of physical environment and incorporating installation. These parts are including to this stage: Arranging for physical design. Supplement the specification of functions. Increase developing for both data and process designs. 3.4.3 Rapid Application Development (RAD) [15] Rapid application development is one of the agile method, it is shorten the life cycle and to produce information system more quickly in order to respond to rapidly changing business requirement . it develops the projects faster and higher quality by using groups to gather requirements. Requirement planning User design constructions cutover in requirement phase , developer seek to obtain input from users in order to determine set of system requirements. In the user phase, is based on the sample cycle, involving experienced users and developers. This phase is consisting of a sequence of workshops, each one of them may be takes three days. During this phase the Tool CASE is used to build the prototype. The construction phase is to produce or generate the code from the CASE prototype, and the new system is validated by users. The final phase is cutover. It is cover the system testing, users training and introduction of the system into the client organization. RAD has a number of obvious advantages: Resistance to change in the organization is minimized and the new system is welcome, because of the high degree of users participation in the whole process. The system is developed and delivered more quickly than with traditional development approaches. The speed of the development and the use of relatively small teams means that the RAD tend to be cheaper than their traditional counterparts. The speed of RAD means also it is closely related to current needs of the business. 3.4.5. Soft System Methodology Soft systems methodology (SSM) was developed by Peter Check land and his colleagues at Lancaster University in the 1970s [19]. It is designed to shape interventions in the problematic situations encountered in management, organizational and policy contexts, where there are often no straightforward problems or easy solutions. Though informed by systems engineering approaches, it breaks with them by recognizing the central importance of perspective or world-view in social situations. It differs significantly from the systems science approaches developed in the 1960s, and is more reflective of action research in its philosophy and approach. SSM is widely described as a seven-stage process, as follows: 1. Identifying the problematic situation that it is desired to intervene in 2. Researching the situation and building a rich picture (interpretive representation) of it 3. Selecting perspectives and building root definitions (key processes that need to take place within the desired system) 4. Developing a conceptual model of the change system 5. Comparing the model with the real-world situation 6. Defining the changes to be implemented 7. Taking action. Stage 1: finding out is concerned with identifying and providing a brief description of the situation it is desired to intervene in. Stage 2: modeling This stage is concerned with producing definitions of transformation processes that should achieve the desired intervention(s). Stage 3: dialogue Conceptually the dialogue stage involves examining the change model against the real-world situation, usually as represented by the rich picture and associated analyses, and checking that it makes sense. Often the change model needs adjusting, and sometimes the rich picture needs to be developed further. Stage 4: defining and taking action This stage will vary depending on the specific change project, but essentially it involves developing the (revised) change model into a concrete